Buddhism and the Licchavi society

The Licchavi period in the history of Nepal is considered to be a bright age. During this period, a large number of small or big viharas were constructed and numerous number of chaityas were established in the Nepal Valley (now called the Kathmandu Valley) The Nepal Valley is also taken as a place of origin of Buddhist civilisation in Nepal. Bhikchunis stayed in these vihars establishing a Sangha. Worship and prayer works were carried on in these vihars and chaityas in a regular manner. In the Sansthagara (assembly hall) of these vihars surrounded by walls all around, religious discourses were held. Buddhist scholars and devotees coming there from the distant places took part in the religious discourses held in these viharas. Devotes created special funds for ensuring the continuity of daily workshop activities in these vihars to offer Bhojandana (offering of foods) to Buddhists coming from distant places and settling in these vihars and also to renovate the vihars, chaityas in ruinous condition. It is not my intention to write the history of Buddhism by pointing to all these facts. It is simply to make an analytical study of the status of Buddhism in the Nepal Valley of the ancient times and the role of the Licchavi society in the upliftment of Buddhism on the basis of published sources.

A short comment on the division of time made in the history of Nepal

The Licchavi period considered to be the bright period from the angle of Buddhism fell in the ancient times. Historians do not consider any political, social, economic and other special considerations while dividing the time. By the term ìancient timesî it means the time after the downfall of the Kirats and the time before the start of Nepal Samvat. The Licchavi period is considered to have started 100 years before the Christian era. But in view of the lack of scientific study of history, it is difficult to trace the events that took place the preliminary phases of the ancient times. Whatever materials available are not adequate. In spite of this, an attempt has been made here to state that sources available such as Gopalarajavamsavali, other chronicles, Swayambhu Purana, other Puranas, Mulasarvastivadavinaya samgraha, Kautilya Arthashastra, if studied well, can throw new light on the ancient times.

A short note on an incident at the beginning of the Licchavi period

Whether the Kings of Somabamsa (Soma dynasty) or the Licchavis exercised the monopoly of powers in Nepal after the fall of the Kirats, chronicles are divided in this issue. As mentioned in the chronicle translated by Daniel Wright, the kings of Somavamsha exercised supreme powers in the Kingdom of Nepal at the time of Gasti, the last king of Kirata dynasty1. Chronicles have mentioned Nimisa as the first king of Somavamsha. Rajabhogamala chronicle called him Nimistakar Varma. One class of historians argued that the kings of Somavamsha ruled in Nepal after the fall of Kiratas. The fifth king of that dynasty Bhaskar Varma was issueles. He adopted a son of Gautam Chhetriya lineage, the devotee of Shakyamuni Buddha. He also named him Bhumi Varma and abdicated voluntarily. Gopalavamsavali described Bhumi Varma as belonging to Suryavamshi (solar dynasty). Looking from this angle, it appears that new dynasty emerged since the time of sixth Somavansi King.

Gopalarajavamsavali mentioned that the Kirats defeated the Mahisapala Kings. Altogether 32 Kirata Kings ruled. Then the Licchavis defeated the Kirats. The inscription at Pasupati installed by Jayadeva II also mentioned the same.

Buddhism in the Nepal Valley in the Licchavi period

The gap between the critical period of 100 BC to around 400 AD was 500 years when Buddhism made its presence felt. According to Mulasarvastivada vinaya sangraha, some monks came to the Nepal Valley along with some businessmen to preach Buddhism during the time of Gautam Buddha. At the fag end of the Shakyamuni’s life Virudhaka, the King of Koshala, attacked Kapilvastu and destroyed it. It was at this time that some Shakyas had come to Nepal along with businessmen of Sravasti. It was also mentioned in that text that the monks could not stay in Nepal due to cold climate. Some of them returned whereas others made the Nepal Valley their permanent home. There was also mention of Priyapal Shakya and Bandhubhad Shakya in the inscriptions of the Licchavi period. According to Mulasarvastivadvinaya Sangraha, monk Ananda came to the Nepal Valley especially with a view to meeting these Shakyas. There are many stories telling that the Shakyas introduced Buddhism in the Nepal Valley. Gautam Buddha, it is said, himself came to the Nepal Valley and preached the religion he founded. Emperor Ashoka of Magadha came to the Nepal Valley at the time of Sthumko, the 14th king of Kirata dynasty. He established four stupas at four corners of Lalitpur. The legend also says that Emperor Ashoka got his daughter Charumati married with Prince Devapala of the Nepal Valley. Charumati constructed a vihar at Chabahil which was also named after Charumati. Charumati and Devapala then established the city callae Devapatan. Some historians do not agree with this view. They argue that the arrival of Gautam Buddha, monk Ananda and Emperor Ashoka to the Nepal Valley, establishment of four stupas in Lalitpur by Ashoka has not been supported by historical evidences. According to Sudarshan Mahasthavir, these four stupas were constructed later under the influence of the Buddhist missionary team despatched by Emperor Ashoka to Himavatkhanda2.

The same source says that the missionary team possibly came to the Nepal Valley in 236 B.C. After the arrival of this mission, Gumvihar was constructed in the Nepal Valley and Buddhism spread in the valley in a war footing. This may be the reason why the first historian of Nepal Babu Ram Acharya wrote that the establishment of Gumvihar marked the emergence of civilisation in Nepal.

Mahayana Buddhism in Licchavi Nepal

The critical period of 100 BC is also called the period when Mahayana Buddhism become popular. The Buddhist followers who think that changes should be made in the path of Nirvana showed by Gautam Buddha according to changes in situations are generally called Mahayanists. In other words, the path of Mahayana is another simple or new path of the path of Nirvana truly reflective of the Four Noble Truths propounded by Gautam Buddha. This Mahayana branch of Buddhism became very popular in the Nepal Valley. The following factors are responsible for this.

Suitability to climate of the Nepal Valley

The propagation of Buddhism in the Nepal Valley was slow prior to the entry of Mahasnghika Bhikshus. It was only after the advent of the Shakyas of Kapilvastu into the Nepal Valley that Buddhism developed at the fast pace. They also kept alive Buddhism.

Swayambhu a unifying factor for Buddhists

Swayambhu is an important pilgrimage for the Buddhists of the Nepal Valley. This is also a cultural centre for pilgrims entering the Nepal Valley. The Puranas, scriptures, legends and other stories say that the origin of Swayambhu is linked with the history of Buddhism in Nepal. According to Swayambhu Purana, Swayambhu Jyoti (light) emanated at Swayambhu in a lake located at the central part of the Nepal Valley prior to the latterís transformation into a human settlement. This was forecast by Vipaswi Buddha. Swayambhu is also known as Adi Buddha, Swayambhu Dharmadhatu Vagiswara, etc. Hemaraj Shakya, the author of Swayambhu Mahachaitya, has explained different names of Swayambhu.

1. Swayambhu is not man-made. As Swayambhu Jyoti emanated itself, it is called Jyotirupa Swayambhu.

2. As it is representative of sunya, colourless and eternal, emanating itself, it is also called Adibuddha since the ancient times.

3. As Adibudha takes the form of Jyoti from the position of Dharmakaya, and as it gives Darshan to dovotees, it is called Swayambhu Dharmadhatu. Dharmadhatu Mandal was created in front of the Dharmadhatu.

A certain group of historians are of the view that all the matters contained in the Puranas, chronicles and legends regarding the origin of Swayambhu are simply a pretext for the Buddhists of the Nepal Valley for propagating Buddhism. The emanation of light in a certain place is not a thing of surprise, according to the reminiscences of Chinese pilgrims in Nepal. Such places were found in the Nepal Valley during the Licchavi period.

The popularity of Swayambhu Jyotirupa attracted Adi Buddhas like Shikhi, Viswabhu, Krakuchhanda, Kasphyap, Manjushri to the Nepal Valley. The importance of Swayambhu Jyotirupa must have been told by the businessmen dealing on wool who came to Nepal to the Shakyas of Kapilvastu, Kolis of Ramgram, Licchavis of Vaisali and Mallas of Kushinara and Pawa. As a result, the rulers of these places came to the Nepal Valley even by renouncing their throne. It has already been mentioned that around the time of the origin of Swayambhu Jyotirupa, the Buddhists of the Nepal Valley had not settled in one place creating Sangha. Then, the Buddhists worshipped and prayed to the Buddha and acquired the knowledge of Buddhism from religious discourses given by Buddhist monks and Acharyas coming from outside. Apart from Nagarjuna, the propounder of Mahayana philosophy, Vasubandhu, the author of Abhidharmakosha, Emperor Ashoka of Magadha and Majjhima there, the leader of the missionary team in the Himalayan region, Buddhist scholars Shantarakshita, Padmasambhava and Atisa who went to Tibet and China via Nepal spread Buddhism in Nepal. They also told the people about the importance of Swayambhu. The religions discourses made the Shakyas, Licchavis, Kolis, Mallas, Vrijjis who were already under the influence of Buddhism aware of the need to mete out equal treatment to all and undertake public welfare activities. As a result, these communities were not only united but they also succeeded in creating a new society with the cooperation of local people. In course of time, the new society was transformed into a Newar society and their civilisation became Buddhist civilisation. This civilisation also paved a way for the development of a culture with a separate identity being motivated by the spirit of coordination between Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, a thing which has no parallel elsewhere.

Hold of Mahayana deal among the people of the Valley

Suffering, the origin of suffering, cessation of suffering and the paths to eliminate suffering are called Four Noble Truths propounded by the Buddha. In realisation of the fact that the world is a miserable place due to diseases, inevitability of death and all sorts of sufferings, the Buddha identified the need of understanding Four Noble Truths that shows that a path to Nirvana in order to get liberation from sufferings. Hundred years after the Parinirvana of Gautam Buddha, the Second Sanghayana (great meeting) was held. In this meeting dispute arose about the path of Nirvana and this resulted in the division of Buddhist monks and followers into two groups. One group which opposed the idea of changing in the teaching of the Buddha were called Theravada or Sthaviravada. Another group which supported the idea that changes should be brought about in tune with the change of time were called Mahasanghika.

Later, Theravada was called Hinayana. Mahasanghika began to be called Mahayana. The Mahasanghika propagated Buddhism in the Nepal Valley by establishing Sangha in Gumvihara and other Viharas. The inscriptions of the Licchavi period bear testimony to this fact, And once the tradition of studying Buddhist texts and delivering discourses about Navagrantha such as Gandavyaha sutra, Saddharmapundarrika started, Mahayana, the great branch of Buddhism, took a firm hold in the Nepal Valley.

Development Process of Mahayana

Due to the inclination of the people of the Licchavi period towards Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism flourished tremendously. Once the Buddhist texts such as Saddharmapundarika and Gandavyuha were written, people came to know that the persons who serve the world through compassion, sacrifice, hardship, tolerance, etc. will attain Bodhisattvahood which is the hightest goal of Mahayana. That the Bodhisattvas are worthy of veneration was known to the people of the Licchavi period. Boddhisattvas do not enter into Nirvana state until all the sentient beings are relieved of sufferings. One of the eminent Bodhisattvas are Karunamaya or Lokesvara who is very much popular in the Nepal Valley. The people believe that those who remember Lokesvara are freed from sufferings.

It is because us of the firm belief in the ideal of Bodhisattvahood that Mahayana Buddhism could take a strong root in the soil of the Nepal Valley. Bodhisattvas are not satisfied even though they are liberated. The most important ideal of Mahayana is to see that all human beings are liberated. Therefore, Mahayana followers offer charity wishing the happiness and welfare of others. It is this ideal and spirit which drew the people towards Buddhism. The Licchavi king of the fourth century Vrsdeva adopted Buddhism as his religion. He was described as a follower of Buddhism by Gopalrajavamshavali. Shivadeva abdicated voluntarily and became a Buddhist monk.

Mahayana ideals and the Licchavi society

The progress of Mahayana Buddhism in the Licchavi period not only had a positive impact on the religious affairs but also on social, political, economic and other affairs. The people living then were Kirats, Licchavis, Vrijjiks, Mallas, Shakyas, Kolis, etc. They identified themselves as Buddhists because of the religious consciousness generated by Mahayana Buddhism. At the same time, Abhira Guptas were followers of Vedic religion and practised Vedic rituals like yagna and homa, etc. For sometime during the Licchavi period, they had their hold in political affairs of the country. Especially at the time of Basantadeva, Buddhists were criticised as being atheists, illogical and foolish. But, for the Buddhists inspired by Mahayana philosophy it had little impact. The Buddhists, in course of time, even succeeded in winning the hearts of opponents. Even some Guptas installed inscriptions by donating charity for the construction of Mahayana temples such as that of Avalokitesvara. The intention of this writing is not to say that all the people of the Licchavi period followed Mahayana Buddhism but to say that a society of Buddhist followers including even non-Buddhist communities was created during the Licchavi period. And a tradition of organising religious discourses, propagation of Buddhism was firmly established. In the seventh century Vajrayana philosophy became popular following the writing of Pragyapath Vinischarya Sidhi by Anangavajra. Then, Vajrayana followers became members of this society. It is said that the arrival as well as stay in Nepal of three Vajrayana philosophers of the Nalanda University Shantarakshita (705-762), Padmasambhava (717-762) and Kamalashila at the end of the Licchavi period laid a strong foundation of Vajrayana Buddhism in Nepal. Thus, the Licchavi Buddhist society was united religiouly. This was a major contribution in the task of transforming Nepal into a Buddhist country.

A short account of vihars of the Licchavi period

As Mahayana succeeded in attracting the Licchavi society towards Buddhism, the Nepal Valley became Buddhist gradually. Then, the people made every effort to develop Buddhism. The Kings as well as the people were engaged in constructing small or big vihars. Manavihara constructed by Manadeva, Shivadeva vihara constructed by Shivadeva and Rajavihara constructed by Amsuvarma were popular. Other major vihars constructed during the Licchavi period were Madhyam vihar and Kharjurikavihara. These vihars had their own speciality in terms of honorific title shri given to them and the land donated for them for their maintenance. Looking from a wider angle, it appears that one or two vihars were constructed in each strategic point of the cities of the Kathmandu Valley. The viharas constructed around Gullatgram in Lalitpur during the time of Narendradeva help to identify the construction of viharas in strategic points. Mention may be made of other viharas such as Abhayaruchi, Bartakalyan Gupta vihara, Chatu Bhalitanasana, Pushpabatika, Gandhakuti and Sujataprabha, etc. in Lalitpur. The ancient vihars of Kathmandu were Ajikavihar, Aryavas Vihara, Jivavarma vihar, Shivadeva vihar, etc. Gumvihar of Sankhu and Sinaguvihara or Swayambhu of Kathmandu were ancient viharas which have already been mentioned.

Bhikshus and Bhikshunis stayed in vihars by establishing Sanghas. But in Shivadeva vihar, the monks and nuns who came from outside stayed organising a Sangha of their own. These viharas were usually surrounded by walls. These monks and nuns need not go out for alms begging for livelihood. Devotees donated charity in cash and kind and also land for running the Sangha. In the Gandhakuti Vihara, there was provision of renovating the old building of the vihara. The government used to sanction certain amount of money for running the viharas. In order to meet financial needs of large viharas, local governing bodies such as gram were given special powers to collect financial sources. According to the Yagabahal and Vajradhara inscriptions, Narendradeva gave the following rights to the special viharas of his time.

a. Tax from shops

b. Fine from wrong weights and measures imposed every six months.

c. Tax imposed on stray cattle from cattle owners.

d. Amount collected from fine for Pancha Aparadh (five major crimes) such as theft, taking away another’s life, murder, alliance with murderers, etc. The state has authority over the body of criminals but the Sangha of Bhikshus and Bhikshunis is entittled to the property of the criminals.

e. Amount collected from the fee for taking the baby out of the womb in the case of death of the pregnant woman.

Most of the viharas constructed in the Licchavi times had disappeared but they had left their remnants in some form or other such as the construction of walls around the vihars, creation of guthis for the income of viharas, etc. Women of Lalitpur observe vrata (fast) for a month at Hiranyavarna Mahavihar, Lalitpur, on the occassion of Gunla (falling in June - July). The ritual reminds us of the practice of Pancha Aparadh. As mentioned above, Pancha Aparadh also includes taking away another man’s wife. As the person putting allegation of taking away one’s wife without evidence is himself proved guilty, he compels her to go to her parents’ house to get divorce. The women who are forced to stay away from their husbands come to Hiranyvarna Mahavihar, Patan, to observe Vrata for the whole month of Gunla to prove their innocence. If any member of the husband’s family comes to meet her and help to complete her Vrata at the end of Gunla, her innocence is proved.

Some principal deities of the Licchavi period

During the Licchavi period, it was not only the viharas where the images of gods and goddess were installed but also other places like chaityas, big or small, where the images of Buddhist divinities were installed. The practice of decorating the viharas, chaityas and other shrines with images of deities started especially after the reign of Vrsdeva, the Buddhist King. Gopalarajavamsavali has clearly mentioned this. Bhasa vamsavali mentioned the construction of Dhando chaitya by Vrsdeva. The chaityas constructed during the Licchavi period are still present to the present day though in a deteriorating condition.

Besides the construction of chaityas, images of various gods and goddesses were made and installed in temples, vihars and other monastic complexes. It has already been mentioned that one who practises Mahayana ideals of compassion, sacrifice and tolerance is entitled to Bodhisattvahood. Adi Buddhas Vipaswi, Shikhi, Viswabhu, Kashyap, Kanakmuni and Krakuchhanda had toed the same line. Avalokitesvara was one of the Bodhisattvas. It is said that there are 1008 Avalokivesvaras. The Yashodhar Samaj Sewa Parishad in its special souvenir issue has published the name of 360 Avalokitesvaras. Similarly, the pictures of 108 Avalokitesvaras have already been put on display. The images of 12 Lokesvaras to be offered worship in 12 months, one image each month, have been decorated at the verandah of Hiranyavarna Mahavihar. Out of the four noted Avaloketesvaras of the Nepal Valley, the Avalokitesvara of Lalitpur also called Loknath or Karunamaya is installed in a chariot and is taken out in a procession in the month of Baisakh (April - May) every year.

Acchyobhya, Shakyamuni, Amitabha Buddhas of Mahayana pantheon and Bodhisattvas Samantabhadra, Maitreya, Manjushri, etc. were popular during the Licchavi period. The inscription found at Tyagol Tole, Patan, mentions the popularity of these Buddhas and Bodhisattvas among the people of Licchavi Nepal . As mentioned in this inscription :

1. Acchyobhya - His colour is blue. His very presence gives one joy. He is venerable

2. Samantabhadra - He is committed to service of mankind. He is of pure-hearted nature. He is, therefore, venerable.

3. Shakyamuni- He is worthy of salutation with piety and devotion.

4. Manjushri - He is wise and omniscient. His intelligence is active. He is also venerable.

5. Amitabha - He is luminous shining with profuse knowledge. He dispels ignorance in the form of worldly illusions and temptations. He frees the world from fear. He holds lotus in hand. Amitabha Buddha seated at the Sukhavati Bhuvan along with Lokesvaras is always worthy of veneration.

Since the rise of Amsuvarma in the Licchavi period, Vajrayana entered into the fold of Mahayana Buddhism. During the medieval period, Vajrayana played an important role in the development of Buddhism. But Vajrayana did not become popular during the Licchavi period. Even though the followers of Vajrayana had introduced Dashami puja, no mention has been made in the inscriptions regarding the deities connected with this puja. One of the two Licchavi inscriptions mentioning Vajrayana found in Gorkha simply mentioned Vajrabhairab.

Worship provision in viharas, chaityas and worship of images during the Licchavi period

There was provision of the worship of chaityas and other Buddhist sacred places during the Licchavi period and various programmes used to be held there during auspicious occasions. Various materials such achyata (a kind of unbroken rice grain), chandan (paste made of sandalwood), flowers, dhupa bati (incense sticks), naibadya (oblation) were used during the worship. An inscription on Swayambhu has mentioned the process of complecting the worship activities using these kinds of worship materials. The inscription found at Pharping dating back to Amsuvarma has mentioned the provision of offering chhatra (parasol) in a certain vihar accompanied by a band of musicians. The devoted followers recited stanzas of Navagrantha (nine sacred scriptures) in the viharas and in front of images of the Buddhist divinities in the morning and evening. Stanzas of Prajraparmita had been inscribed in the inscriptions of the Licchavi period.

In Sansthagars of vihars of the Licchavi period, Buddhist scholars coming from outside used to deliver religious discourses. The devotees thronged to the Sansthagars to listen to the religious discourses. There used to be staff at the viharas and religious places to keep the premises of viharas neat and clean at the time of the gathering of devotees and scholars. Such staff consisted of women or children or men convicted of criminal charge. The kings as well as the ordinary men created a trust or fund for making arrangement of water taps, renovation of the buildings of viharas or other shrines , etc. Some produced the images of Buddhist divinities and installed them in shrines voluntarily. This is the main reason why the Licchavi period is called the golden age of Buddhism. But due to changes in time and circumstance and due to natural calamities taking place from time to time, most of the viharas constructed at that age had collapsed. But the Buddhists have developed a culture of preserving the vihars in traditional style.

Role of guthi in envigorating Buddhism

The verbal meaning of gosthi is the guthi. The feeling of working together gave birth to guthi during the Licchavi period. The mention of such guthi has been made in inscriptions of that time.

There were guthis for checking health of people, offering incense sticks, parasol, drinking water, organising religious discourses, wrestling, etc. Most of the guthis were directly or indirectly related to Buddhism. The rulers of the Licchavi times encouraged the activities of guthis.

There were two kinds of guthis. One was confined to family affairs and the other was intended to provide welfare to as many people as possible. While talking about guthis, mention must be made of some important guthis. They were Archaguthi, Dhupaguthi, Vaditraguthi, Paniyaguthi, Arogyashalaguthi. One of them was archaguthi for organising worship activities and for encouraging artists to create or make images, statues, etc. Dhupaguthi was meant for making provision of incense sticks, sandalwood, achhyata, etc. for worship activities. An inscription found at Swayambhu has mentioned the donation of land for this guthi. An inscription found at Kathmandu has also mentionted the same Vaditraguthi was meant for making provision of playing of musical instruments during recitation of sutras, hymns, incantation and chanting. The work of this guthi is not simply confined to playing musical instruments during the religious activities. This guthi led to the creation of various musical instruments. It was for this also that Vaditraguthi was established. The purpose of Dhwajaguthi was to make arragement of parasol required during the worship activities in viharas. Handling of parasol is also an art. So, this guthi might have been created for making parasol and teaching the art of handling parasol. Paniyaguthis were created for organising drinking water management for the viharas. Such taps were made in water sprouts and water conduits. It was considered to be a religious activity to provide drinking water facility to the monks and nuns. An inscription of Pharping of the date of Amsuvarma mentions the construction of model water tap by Amsuvarma. This tradition continues to the present day. Even in the present time, people fetch water in pots and in other vessels from distant places during the festivals, fairs and jatras to give water to the thirsty.

Another such guthi was Arogyashalaguthi which was established during the Licchavi period for checking the health of the people. The inscription of Deopatan of the time of Narendradeva proves this. Buddhist monks were skillful in medical treatment. Even Chinese ambassador who came to Nepal during the Licchavi period spoke high of the Nepalese skill of treating disease. Similarly, there were other guthis entrusted with the job of keeping the vihars and other sacred places neat and clean. Dhanavajra Vajracharya, in his book Inscriptions of the Licchavi period (1973) has mentioned the creation of a guthi by a charitable person called Jayachandra of the Licchavi period for cleaning the paths and streets.

Conclusion

The ideas followed and set by the Licchavis disappeared slowly. Most of the vihars constructed during the Licchavi period had not so far been properly located. The weakness as well as negligence in the field of excavation work has also been pointed out. What is pitiable is that for the maintenance and renovation of viharas, temples, stupas, chaityas, etc. which lent invaluable support to enlisting the Kathmandu Valley in the world heritage list, foreign assistance has to be sought. For this, the present generation is not only to be blamed.

There is the gap of nearly 2000 years between the start of the Licchavi period and the present time. The Nepal Valley witnessed many political changes during this interval. Natural calamities and catastrophes caused the loss of men and materials, destruction of human settlements, objects of cultural and natural value, etc. Besides the natural calamities, foreign invasion, internal conflicts, evils of administrative bureaucracy were also responsible for this. Thus, the Licchavi ideals became weak and fickle. The faith in Buddhism among the people of the ruling or the ruled class was confined to listening to religious discourses. Lack of coordination between viharas, sanghas and vangha members was no less reponsible, In such a situation gosthis (assemblies) virtually degenerated into guthis (trusts). And instead of strengthening these guthis, guthiyars fought among themselves to get hold of guthi land.

In order to instill life into the bright aspects of Buddhism, the Newar population need to make sacrifice. Newars have to identify themselves as Buddhists. If Newars forget to identify themselves, their stand will be fickle and their future will continue to be insecure.

Notes:

1. Wright, Daniel, The History of Nepal, Calcutta : Sushil Gupta Ltd. 1958. P. 72-73.

Shudershan, Bhikshu, 1984. Buddhism in Nepal, Part II. Kathmandu : Prem Bahadur et all. P. 30-32.

2. Wright, Daniel, The History of Nepal, Calcutta : Sushil Gupta Ltd. 1958. p. 72-73.