Impact of physical environment on
Buddhism of Nepal Mandala
- Chakramehar Vajracharya
(This is the English summary of the Newari paper presented during the 'Conference on the Buddhist Heritage of Nepal Mandal' in 1998.)
According to Buddhism, nothing is permanent or stable. The evolution of the earth, the planet, etc. exemplifies the principle of flexibility and impermanence crossing the various cycles of existence in the universe. So far we know that it is the planet earth which only sustains life.
1000 years after the birth of Lord Buddha, the population of the world reached the figure of 500 million. The fast pace of population growth resulted in excessive exploitation of natural resources in the world thereby causing further ecological deterioration. These adverse changes in social-economic balance had an impact on the encroachment on social justice and equality. These factors were also responsible for a strong foundation of class and caste structure. Exploitation was done in the name of religion. On the one side, the other spiritual unrest crept pervasively. In order to steer ahead human society and civilization in a right footing, revolution of thought germinated with the emergence of great thinkers and philosophers. Those great men born in the Asian continent were Lho-tse (6th century B.C.) in China, Prometheus and Empedocles (ca 490-430 B.C), Zoroaster, also Zara -sthu -shtra (ca 628- ca 551B.C.) and Mahavira (6th century B.C.) in India. In Nepal, known as the land of the Himalayas, was born Siddhartha Gautam at Lumbini. This auspicious birth marked the initiation of Buddhist culture and civilization in Nepal. The scope of the Himalayan culture and civilization also expanded.
2. Physical environment in the Himalayan region and human civilisation
Hindukush Himalaya covers the Himalayas from Afghanistan to Myanmar. It covers the area of one million square kilometer and the area of the Himalayan range is 2500 kilometers. Various geographers have given different names to the Himalayan region separated into different ranges. But ancient geographers have called the area extending from the Suleiman range west of the Punjab to Assam and Arakan range in the East is named Himavat range. According to Buddhist texts and Hindu Purana, Sumeru Parvat was considered as the centre of meditation and the concept of Himavat Khanda was developed. According to the Himavat Khanda concept, five ranges were called Nepal, Kurmachal (Kumaon), Kedar (Garhwal), Jallandhar (Simla- Kangra) and Kashmir.
The human civilization in the Himalayan region falls on the South- West and South- East Asian cultural domain which is one of the several cultures of the Asian continent. The history of human settlement and civilization in this region is the history of migration of Mongols coming from north-east direction and Caucasians coming from south-west direction. If Szechuan Hunan platen of China is the homeland of Mongols, the homeland of Caucasians is the grassland in Middle Asia.
Culturally, Tibetan, Burman, Hindu and Afghan and Iranian cultures are prominent in the Himalayan region. The impact of the Himalayan Shangrila is seen in its influence on various schools of Buddhism. It is because of the close tie between the Himalayas and Buddhism that the area is a fertile land for research and study.
3. Siddhartha Gautam and his religion
Buddhism is a religion giving top priority to consciousness and meditation. Buddhism is a simple as well as a great and profound religion. For understanding this religion in a simple manner, there are 37 aspects of Bodhi Knowledge which is called Saptatrinsa Bodhi Pachhick Dharma in Sanskrit. It is believed that if one practices Bodhi Pachhik Dharma one will be immune from being attracted to the transitory materialistic world. Out of the total of 37 aspects, 22 aspects of this Bodhi Pachhik Dharma are related to the task of attaining happiness in the earthly existence and the remaining 15 aspects are related to attainment of happiness in the other world.
Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism seems to be the religion of the Buddhists of Nepal Mandala. This is due to their desire for doing good to the people aspiring for Bodhihood. The cultivation of spiritual values in day-to-day life for attainment of Bodhihood or Bobhichitta led the Buddhists of Nepal to stick to priesthood, ritualism and tantrism in Buddhism. In other words, Vajrayana Buddhism is the religion of Nepal Mandala.
4. Environment of Nepal Mandala
Newars are the indigenous people of Nepal Mandala. Most of the Newars in the ancient times are Buddhists. The Kathmandu Valley is the centre of Newar culture and civilization. Newars, culture and civilization is not simply confined to the Kathmandu Valley but also to other places of Nepal where Newars live.
The environment of Nepal is connected with the environment of the Indian sub- continent. In an inscription at Prayag, India, installed by Samudragupta, the territory of Nepal has been mentioned as lying with Assam in the east and Kumaon in the west. The Kathmandu Valley is surrounded on all sides by mountains like Jamacho (Nagarjuna), Samkhocha (Shivapuri), Phuochwon (Phulchowki), Dhyanocho ( Champadevi), etc.In the centre is the Swayambhu Chaitya, the seat of Vajrayana and Mahayana Buddhism. The Kathmandu Valley is a sacred valley blessed by Buddhist religious sites such as Swayambhu Chaitya, Ashta Vaitaraga, Chaturbisati pithas, Ashtamatrikas, Ashta Bhairabs, etc., Along with the sanctity of land blessed by the visit of Adi Buddhas, Bodhisattwa and Buddhist scholars from the ancient times to the present day, the streams and rivers sanctified by association with various deities lend enchantment to the valley.
It is because of all these that a rich culture developed in the Kathmandu Valley. The culture of the Kathmandu Valley consists in the cultivation of the virtues of compassion, justice, morality, etc.
5. Impact of Inter-regional physical environment
The vast chain of the Himalayas from Kumpon to Nepal has made the Nepal Valley an enchanting land. The hills and mountains of Nepal pour water giving fresh wind to the environment. The link of Nepal with the Himalayan region of India from the Indus river to the Ganges, the marriage of the daughter of Vaisnavi, Lichhavis with Chandragupta, the King of India (320 A.D.), relation between Amsuvarma (591-621 A.D.) and Emperor Harshavardhana of India (606-646), the marriage of the daughter of Amsuvarma with Tibetan Emperor Srong bstam Gampo greatly supported the development of culture and civilisation in Nepal. The visit of architect Balabahu, Arniko, (1245-1306) to Tibet and China at the command of King Jayabhima Deva (1245-1271) upon the request of Phagspa, Dharma Guru of Shakyapa sect and inflow of many Budhist scholars of India to Nepal due to the Muslim attack in the 12th century resulted in the development of Buddhist art, sculpture and trade. Nepal Mandala became a centre of Buddhist metal craftsmen. This situation continued upto the end of the medieval period.
This worship of Nairatma by Mahamanjushri and the establishment of Shantipur by Shanktikaracharya according to the old belief constituted the introduction of tantrism in Nepal. But tantrism developed in Nepal triumphantly only after the incoming of tantric scholars of Bengal and other parts of India after the Muslim attack. Other things worthy of mention are the trade between Tibet and India, and the exchange of visits of Buddhist scholars of Nepal, India and Tibet due to the existence of great seats of learning like Nalanda and Vikramsila. The hospitality of the Nepalese, enchanting beauty and healthy climate of Nepal and accessible roads made Nepal Mandala a convenient place for the scholars as well as traders of Tibet and India. This resulted in the development of art and architecture supported by the increase in income.
6. Impact of internal physical environment
Mention has already been made of the continuation of Buddhist culture of Nepal Mandala due to the benevolent and pious activities of Mahamanjushri who visited Nepal Mandala along with his disciples. His disciples were the original inhabitants of Nepal. Manju pattern named after Manjushri is the original settlement of Nepal. Swayambhu Purana says that Mahamanjushri was Boddhisasttva of the Tretayuga who came to Nepal from Mahachina.
Bhikshu Sudershan Mahasthavira has expressed the opinion that Mahayana Buddhism originated due to the faith of Nepalese Buddhists in the path of Bodhisttvahood. He was of the opinion that Gautam Buddha thought himself as a Bodhisattva before attaining Supreme Enlightenment. Therefore, Nepal Mandala became a fertile land of Mahayana Buddhism.
Then, in line with the spirit of universal brotherhood inspired by the teaching of Lord Buddha, Bhikshus moved ahead to propagate the religion freed from the confines of creed, color, caste, etc. During the time of Emperor Ashoka, missionaries sent by Ashoka namely Kashyapgotra, Alakadeva, Dunduvistha Mahadeva along with Majjhima Stahvira propagated Buddhism from Kumaon and Garhwal to Nepal. According to an inscription found at Nagarjunakonda, this missionary team initiated the Kirantis into Buddhism at a place called Chilta. It is, therefore, said that Kiratis were the oldest people, of Nepal to adopt Buddhism. Even though it is said that Kirantis of Chilta were the first people converted to Buddhism by Majjhima Sthavira, it is also to be recalled that Shakyas, the Buddhists, had come to the Nepal Valley at the time of Lord Buddha and that Koliyas, also Buddhists like Shakyas had come to the Nepal Valley and had established Koliya gram at Keltole, Kathmandu.
Mahayana Buddhism is divided into four parts - Kriyatantra, Charyatantra, yogatantra, and Anutarayogatantra. For, in order to develop intellectual potentiality of Buddhists, the practice of Bodhi knowledge is done through rituals, worship activities, prayers, festivals, etc. In realisation of the fact that man is born to do good to all living beings, all the elemental things like water, wind, image, etc. are worshipped. Flowers, fruits and incense represent the medium of the worship, prayers, etc. In the text called Rahasyakallolini, mention has been made of the kind of flowers and mantras to be offered to deities.
Various factors are responsible for the spread of Buddhism in Nepal. Apart from physical factors, social factor is very important. Nepal is a melting pot of different faiths. People professing Vedic religion, Sanatana Dharma came here. Then came Buddhism influencing the lives of the people and the social environment. According to the Mulasarvastivadavinaya, the relatives of Gautam Buddha came to the Nepal Valley. Many people were converted to Buddhism. The seed of civilization was sown with the introduction of Buddhism. The history of the ancient times is yet to be rewritten. The history of the ancient times is virtually the history of Kirants and Newars.
The Newar society and culture is the typical original culture of Nepal. There are many reasons contributing to the creation of a typical original culture of Nepal. Nepal is a small country. It need not import manpower from other countries like Sri Lanka and Malaysia. Nor is there any sea route that renders inflow of the people possible. Indians cannot easily penetrate into Nepal braving the risks of the formidable Charkose Jhadi (thick forest spread in 4-miles) At that time when the size of population is very thin, there is no need for the foreign people to come into Nepal except for trading purposes.
The social structure of any country is disturbed when different sorts of people with alien culture infiltrate into the society of that country. This results in the imbalance as well as disturbance in the distribution of natural resources and encroachment in pubic places.
The Newars have a tremendous challenge to face in the present heterogeneous society. They have to preserve their lives and culture themselves. They have to be economically self-reliant. In the past, they owned big size of lands. Now, the situation has changed. They are no longer landowners. Farming has to be replaced by trading.
The lifestyle of Newars is not materialistic, nor is it individualistic. 'Live and let live' is the motto of their lifestyle. Therefore, there is close bond between individuals, families and the society. There is social cohesion. Family members are organized and united. The people felt they have duty and responsibility towards the society. The people work together to clean the wells, taps, drains, etc. They have guthis (trusts) called Sanaguthi, Achaguthi, Namasangiti guthi, Gunla Paruguthi, etc. This is the speciality of the Newar society. There are rules and regulations of maintaining discipline to be observed by members of the household, the Sangha and the society. These is special provision for division of labour.
There is an order in the Newar society. Men and women have their special roles to play. The activities of religious discourses, prayers, worship of deities are carried on. Deities in images, chaityas and vihars are circumambulated.
The civilization of the Kathmandu Valley is sustained by Newars. The rich cultural heritage of the Kathmandu Valley is possible only through the creative genius Newars who have developed traditional skill of craftsmanship. They have created works of art and architecture. The guthis, festivals, rules and regulations of discipline, etc. have lent support to continuing the rich cultural heritage. There is no dearth of Buddhist scholars and practitioners in Nepal.
A scholar has mentioned nine acts to be performed by a Buddhist. They are as follows:
1. To work for acquiring virtues.
2. To repent for past misdeeds and improve further.
3. To acquire right kind of education.
4. To worship deities with devotion and piety.
5. To understand the present situation.
6 To think of doing good to others.
7. To initiate any work that does good to mankind.
8. To keep oneself healthy.
9. To eliminate the sufferings of all the people of the word.
The world is transitory. The change is indispensable because it is change which enhances knowledge. Where there is change, there is improvement, coordination adjustment, etc. The latter are also reflective of the spirit of Buddhism in the Nepal Valley. This is also the originality of Nepalese Buddhism. The Newars are the people who molded Buddhism in that shape. The physical environment of Nepal, the geographical position, fertile land, fresh water, foods, fresh wind, green forests has also contributed to shaping up the glorious image of Nepal.
One of the problems today is the pressure of population. We do not know about the population dynamics of the Kirat, Licchavi and medieval times. But, the census conducted in 1911 A.D. showed the population density of the Kathmandu Valley to be 400. It has increased tremendously. Migration of the hilly and mountainous people to the Kathmandu Valley is the reason. There is now cultural mix-up , deforestation, decrease in production, increasing water and air pollution, etc. This resulted in erosion of moral, social and ethical values. Instead of promotion of ideas intended to do good to mankind, various kinds of deformities and incongruities increased. The Newar Buddhists have to ponder over this matter.
In this age of scientific and technological development, the Newar youths have to be involved in the scientific collection of Buddhist statistics. Such work must be pushed ahead through cooperation with the relevant international organizations.
Study and research on various aspects of the Buddhism of the Kathmandu Valley must be given continuity. The relation of Buddhism of the Kathmandu Valley with Buddhism obtaining in the Himalayan region must be studied. Similarly study and research must be done to make Buddhist rituals effective and popular.
Contact must be established with foreign college and universities in order to explore possibility of advanced study for Newar Buddhist youths.